In 1975, when the Portuguese made a clumsy exit from Angola, the MPLA was already embroiled in a war against two rival movements (the FNLA and UNITA), funded by the CIA, Zaire (now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo), and the South African apartheid regime none of whom were keen to see an African, Marxist party take power in oil-rich Angola. In 1991, USSR implode and the 15 republics become independent states, marking therefore the end of the cold war. For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. Nato also armed two colonial powers, France and Portugal, in their struggles against nationalist insurgents in Algeria, Angola and Mozambique. by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the For full treatment, see international relations. SOVIET SUPPORT But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War. The United States and the Soviet Union began developing intercontinental ballistic missiles, and in 1962 the Soviets began secretly installing missiles in Cuba that could be used to launch nuclear attacks on U.S. cities. After 1945, the pace of change quickened. Please subscribe or login. It highlights the impact of the Cold War on their growth and policy performance. Algeria strongly supported the Palestinian cause, and when Moscow was lukewarm in support of the Six-Day War in 1967, Algeria refused to let the Soviets build a naval base at Mers El Kbir. Henceforth, the backdrop of decolonization was the Cold War. For example, after the Algerian revolution began in November 1954, the Soviets hesitated for more than two years before sending weapons to the rebels for fear of antagonizing the French government. But, as in the neighbouring DRC, Soviet support alone was not enough to secure power. Not only did Moscow oppose colonialism in principle, but the insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends. changed sides to become violently anti-Soviet. Between the two world wars, some Africans lived and work in Europe, and this experience produced many of the leaders and intelligentsia who would return to Africa with ideas about how to change their own societies and end colonial rule. This hostility between the two superpowers was first given its name by George Orwell in an article published in 1945. Historically, communism on the continent was strongest in Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, and South Africa, which had significant European settlement, but such ideas remained foreign to the African masses until the principles of Marxism-Leninism became popular among intellectuals around the time of World War I ( Drew 2014 ). In truth, though, it marked a turning point the end of direct actions by western powers in Africa, replaced by conflicts that spread across the continent as the west and the Soviet Union tussled for influence in newly or soon-to-be independent African nations: a proxy Cold War described as a second scramble for Africa. When it was published, this book was considered perhaps the most authoritative analysis on African socialism. Soviet and Warsaw Pact aircraft, arms and advisors were flown in to prop up his government. He was responding to events in the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, DRC) in 1960 following the withdrawal of the Belgians, who had enriched themselves on their colonys mineral resources and neglected the welfare of their subjects: on independence day, 30 June 1960, the Congo had perhaps just 200 African graduates. Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal were valuable Nato allies but, if they persisted in resisting African nationalist movements or delaying independence, they were offering the Soviet Union a propaganda bonus. Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on Third it wanted to undermine Western/NATO influence. [25] It proclaimed Marxism-Leninism as its official ideology and became a close ally of Moscow. After 1962, it fought hard to prevent communist China from developing its own countervailing presence. The West was willing to turn a blind eye to institutionalised racism and minority rule government, if that meant keeping commercial and mining investments safe from nationalisation. For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (196475) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule (see Vietnam War). The Second World War had given enormous impetus to the embryonic nationalist movements in British and French colonies. In 1948 President Vincent Auriol reminded Algerians that their country was never a state; you were rescued from slavery as well as tribes fighting each other. This was prudent: at this stage there was no knowing who would win the Cold War. At this point, the United States was in a quandary. Many returned home full of new ideas, and began to question the old imperial order. Africans were losers in the Cold War. * Benin * * After Mathieu Kerekou who was a military Commander overthrew the government, Benin became a communist state. Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics. While the colonial empires crumbled, two superpowers jostled for influence in the world. During 1956-1986, as part of the long South African Border War (1966-1990), the Soviets supplied and trained combat units from Namibia (SWAPO) and Angola (MPLA) at the ANC military training camps in Tanzania. Since most nations in Europe, Latin America, and Asia had already chosen sides, Kennedy and Krushchev both looked to Africa as the next Cold War battleground. On the other hand, both ideology and realpolitik led the Soviet Union to support those who fought for independence. As Soviet and American patronage (and arms) spread across the continent, Nyerere warned that a second scramble for Africa by Russia and its satellites was under way. Still, India was the largest and most vocal Third World country not embedded in the emerging Cold War alliance structure, with Nehru the champion of anti-imperialism and neutralism (Barnes, 2013b . Even though socialist ideas were popular among African intellectuals, the emerging nationalists on the continent felt that these ideas had to somehow be molded to fit the realities of the African condition. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. AFRICAN Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. It was waged mainly on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and lasted until 1991. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. Ahmed Ben Bella, in power 1963 to 1965, leaned toward China. Suddenly there were new . Fidel Castro sent 300,000 Cuban troops to Africa to support fellow revolutionaries against Western imperialism. In 1962 the Soviet Union began to secretly install missiles in Cuba to launch attacks on U.S. cities. Fanon was responsible for promoting from a socialist perspective the intersectionality of colonialism and racism, as well as the idea of popular struggles for African national liberation. A closer reading of the objects on display, however, reveals a nuanced and conflicted history, the impact of which is still palpable today. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Soon after, Mixinge became one of the tens of thousands of Africans to travel to Cuba for schooling. First published in the early 1980s, this book is essential reading for those interested in identifying why the most orthodox Afro-Marxist regimes of the time chose development strategies rooted in scientific socialism, or variants of Marxism-Leninism. Socialism in Sub-Sahara Africa: A New Assessment. March 30, 1946. Lawrence James is a historian and author of Empires in the Sun: The Struggle for the Mastery of Africa (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2016), This content first appeared in issue 3 of BBC World Histories magazine, Save up to 49% AND your choice of gift card worth 10* when you subscribe BBC History Magazine or BBC History Revealed PLUS! The Cold War was heavily felt was in South Africa. Listen Cynical pragmatism prevailed in Washington and Moscow when selecting African clients. In 1961, the ANC and the SACP created a joint military wing, known as the "Spear of the Nation." Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). ", Harry Brind, "Soviet policy in the Horn of Africa. The Kremlin developed four major long-term policy goals: At no time was Moscow willing to engage in combat in Africa, although its ally Cuba did so. Furthermore, the British and French publics were increasingly grumbling that maintaining their African colonies was too costly: repression was expensive. US empathy for the colonized faced two constraints that were most significant when their struggle was violent: the colonial powers were Americas allies against the Soviet Union, and Washington insisted that independence movements be free of the Communist virus. Its activists joined the militant National Liberation Front (FLN). Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004. In 1977 the Soviets attempted to unseat Neto, whom they now distrusted. Without Soviet and Cuban weaponry, and without Cubas 50,000 troops, the MPLA would almost certainly not have beaten UNITA and the South African Defence Force at the battle of Cuito Cuanavale, in 1988. The first appearances of communist ideas in Africa were introduced by European workers in newly industrializing colonies with a significant concentration of settlers. USSR retreat from Afghanistan and stop funding communist militias in Africa. The Soviet Navy benefited from its use of Angolan ports to stage exercises. ", Philip E. Muehlenbeck, "Kennedy and Toure: A success in personal diplomacy. Updates? There were only four independent states: Liberia, de facto a US protectorate; Egypt, nominally independent but occupied by British troops; Ethiopia, eager to establish a close relationship with the United States; and white-ruled South Africa. [13], Algeria supported the Polisario Front, a left-wing movement supported by Moscow that battled for 10 years for control of Western Sahara from Morocco. Before the Cold War only one country had and dropped a nuclear bomb, but that would not be the case during the Cold War. Nato also armed two colonial powers, France and Portugal, in their struggles against nationalist insurgents in Algeria, Angola and Mozambique. [17] The involvement of the Soviets split the Congolese government and led to an impasse between Lumumba and conservative President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, who was anti-communist. period, it was the only government to do so under the same leader This resulted in the widespread popularity of the ideas of Pan-Africanists from America, Europe, and the Caribbean, such as George Padmore and W.E.B. Dubois and the proponents of the concept of Ngritude as espoused by Leopold Senghor of Senegal and Aim Csaire of Martinique. Although the communist ideas and arguments of such European theorists as Marx and Engels have been around since just before the turn of the 20th century, they have never been widespread in Africa. Feuchtwanger, Edgar, and Peter Nailor, eds. As US president Dwight D Eisenhower explained to Winston Churchill in 1954: We are falsely pictured as the exploiters of people, the Soviets as their champions. It would be foolhardy, he warned, to ignore the fierce and growing spirit of nationalism spreading across Africa and Asia. This period also coincided with the time of the Cold War . [31], The South African Communist Party (SACP), operating under the direction of the Comintern, was a strong supporter of the African National Congress. Britain was anxious that power in Africa was handed to dependable politicians. Soviet Union. Coming as it did on the heels of the end of the First Indochinese War, the Algerian conflict further emboldened national liberation forces throughout the colonial and semi-colonial world, a region of increasing importance to policymakers in Washington and . The Kremlin thought Castro's adventurism was dangerous but it was unable to stop him. It was evident from the very beginning of African independence that individual leaders accepted a form of socialism based on the humanistic aspects of that ideology. Both the Soviet Union and the United States were quick to exploit the myriad difficulties that accompanied decolonisation in Africa. SUPPORT FROM WEST While this nation has a predominantly black population, for most of the 20th century it was ruled by a white African minority . This bibliographical essay focuses on the Cold War crises in Africa. Liberation movements across southern Africa were sustained by the Soviet Union and Cuba, which sent large contingents of troops to support independence fighters. Furthermore, Nkrumah feared close relations with the Soviets would lead to a neo-colonialist relationship. Castro had learned from Guatemala, and was able to thwart a coup attempt in 1961. By 1965, Cuba became a fully communist country and developed close ties to the Soviet Union. in Africa. former adversaries of the MPLA mainly the USA and China have become the most important trading partners, as Christabelle Peters points out. Keller, Edmond J., and Donald Rothchild, eds. The Soviet Union and Cuba provided weapons and training camps for African National Congress guerrillas fighting black oppression by the apartheid government. Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. Angola During the Cold War: Background . South Africa, along with Egypt, were the first two countries on the continent to give rise to Communist parties - both in the 1920's. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. Starting then, the Cuban Operation Carlota, to support the MPLA, was to change the course of history in southern Africa. Nelson Mandela: a symbol of the struggle against racism. It also involves a rejection of the free market and the private ownership of property. The onset of the Cold War added a sense of urgency. From the late 1950s, Africans seeking higher education went to a rapidly increasing number of destinations, both within Africa and overseas. Paris sold Algeria French warplanes in 1968, looking to counterbalance the Soviet influence. The decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s resulted in several proxy Cold War confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union over the dozens of newly independent, non-aligned nations. The link was not copied. The Zairean leader PresidentJoseph ", Aryeh Y. Yodfat, "The Soviet Union and the Horn of Africa,", Diana L. Ohlbaum, "Ethiopia and the Construction of Soviet Identity, 1974-1991. The Soviets hailed Ethiopia for its supposed similar cultural and historical parallels to the USSR. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982. Communism in Africa. In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism Online. Your country's customs office can offer more details, or . Welcome to Foreign Policy 's China Brief. The Kremlin supported Gizenga, but did not want to take the international risks involved in delivering material aid to the blockaded Orientale Province. The Cold War had solidified by 1947-48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe. The officer and non-commissioned officer corps of former colonial armies became a praetorian guard of newly independent states, and palace revolutions propelled to power such figures as army commander Idi Amin in Uganda in a 1971 west-backed coup, and Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, the Soviets choice in Ethiopia, who effectively took power in 1974. However President John F. Kennedy and his Peace Corps director Sargent Shriver tried even harder than Khrushchev. Drew provides an excellent account of the development of both the Algerian and South African Communist parties over time. Thus, the superpowers were very much responsible for the emergence of communist orientations in some African nationalist movements. But Fidel Castro knew that the US, reeling from its messy withdrawal from Vietnam, would not be drawn openly into another foreign war. "The explosion of African studies in the Soviet Union. Their main aim was not socialist revolution, but to be free of military aggression from South Africa and see independence with majority rule throughout the continent. Washington feared that the metropoles intransigence would open the door to Soviet meddling. That did not happen, and instead the Soviets emphasized identifying likely allies and giving them financial aid and munitions, as well as credits to purchase from the Soviet bloc. "The Soviet Union and Angola.". Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1987. The United States therefore welcomed the rule of General Ibrahim Abboud, who had in November 1958 seized power in recently independent Sudan, bordering Egypt to the south. forces in African countries, th e Cold War actors institutionali zed a violent political culture in postcolonial Africa. Diplomatic ties were reestablished with Russia in February 1992, after the Soviet Union was dissolved. They were popular and well liked.. "The Soviet Union in the Third World: Purpose in Search of Power.". Moscows propagandists portrayed Nasser as a champion of oppressed peoples in their worldwide struggle against imperialism and capitalism. The Soviet Union withdrew its Ambassador after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960. His corruption, like that of so many others of his kind, weakened economies and stifled growth. In 1988 he salvaged what he could in an agreement with the United States, by which all Soviet and Cuban forces would withdraw from the continent, and South Africa pulled out of Namibia, which was granted independence in 1990. The Cold War was an ongoing political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II. Weaver, Harold. This was the line taken by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1955 when he extended patronage to Nasser. FEAR OF COMMUNISM He was just 11 when he and his sister left Angola. Communist ideas have been prevalent in Africa since at least the early 20th century. Rosberg, Carl, and Thomas Callaghy, eds. Fear of Communism. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. [10], As early as the 1930s, the Algerian Communist Party made up an important faction of the Algerian nationalist movement; however it supported France in the growing unrest, and was forced to dissolve in 1956. An age of foreign interference. for the very few. The Cold War, however, also pushed US policymakers in the opposite direction. The conflict showed that both superpowers were wary of using their nuclear weapons against each other for fear of mutual atomic annihilation. to the Soviet National Anthem The subsequent . The money secured the loyalty of Colonel Joseph-Dsir Mobutu (who later renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko), a ruthless, ambitious and venal chancer whom the CIA believed to be childish and easily led. In 1979 my family lived very close to a camp for Cubans who were constructing some buildings in Luanda, recalls Angolan writer, Adriano Mixinge. If African movements and parties after independence allied themselves with the United States, China, or the Soviet Union, they were labeled as either capitalist or communist (Young 1982, Idahosa 2004, Rosberg and Callaghy 1979, Friedland and Rosberg 1964). The 1956 Suez Crisis is widely remembered as a critical event in post-war British history, which helped bring to an end the era of Britain as a global empire and superpower. The struggle between superpowers The Cold War reached its peak in 1948-53. ", Sergei Mazov, "Soviet Aid to the Gizenga Government in the Former Belgian Congo (196061) as Reflected in Russian Archives. Until the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union showed very little interest in Africa. Historically, communism on the continent was strongest in Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, and South Africa, which had significant European settlement, but such ideas remained foreign to the African masses until the principles of Marxism-Leninism became popular among intellectuals around the time of World War I (Drew 2014). Neither country followed the Kremlin's directives unquestioningly. Communist parties in these colonies were constantly under pressure by either the colonial government or a white-dominated regime. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. Corrections? There was a sense of freedom, of liberation, as palpable in the streets as in the Mozambicans we met, remembers anthropologist Nadine Wanono, then a student of French cultural ethnographer, Jean Rouch, with whom she travelled to Mozambique in 1978, to teach Super 8 film techniques to FRELIMOs post-independence government. [2] In the Comintern, the chief spokesmen for Africa were whites from the Communist Party of South Africa. Mr. The USA have a story of backup Coup d'tat in the countries of Latin America, support for anti-communist dictatorships such as Indonesia or Phillipines and millitary invasions as in Vietnam. ", Piero Gleijeses, "Cuba's first venture in Africa: Algeria, 19611965. ", Guy de Carmoy, "France, Algeria, and the Soviet Penetration in the Mediterranean. From dark days to moments of hope, David Reynolds traces the Cold War from 1961 to 1991. China has lashed out at a new U_S_ House committee dedicated to countering Beijing, demanding its members discard their ideological bias and zero-sum Cold War mentality., Russias reintegration into the world of sports one year after the invasion of Ukraine began threatens to create the biggest rift in the Olympic movement since the Cold War, Arne Treholt, the former Norwegian Foreign Ministry official who was convicted of spying for the Soviet Union in what became Norways biggest Cold War espionage scandal has died in his Moscow home, When a giant Chinese balloon made an uninvited visit to the United States, U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin turned to a hotline system set up with Beijing to defuse the situation. After South Africa became a republic in 1961 and was expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations, relations were very cold. The link was not copied. [15] During 1956-1986, as part of the long South African Border War (1966-1990), the Soviets supplied and trained combat units from Namibia (SWAPO) and Angola (MPLA) at the African National Congress (ANC) military training camps in Tanzania. The Cold War in Africa had ended. ", Gebru Tareke, "The Ethiopia-Somalia war of 1977 revisited. It is easy to romanticise the historic friendships that the USSR, Cuba and Yugoslavia offered African liberation movements and governments, as Calvert 22s Red Africa season seems to, especially with so much information about the era still locked in archives. Spread of Communism Birth of the USA American Constitution American Independence War Causes of the American Revolution Democratic Republican Party General Thomas Gage biography Intolerable Acts Loyalists Powers of the President Quebec Act Seven Years' War Stamp Act Tea Party Cold War Battle of Dien Bien Phu Brezhnev Doctrine Brezhnev Era [32], Despite the widely reported Soviet support for the ANC and otherwise liberation movements, the Soviet Union also engaged in some trade with South Africa during the apartheid era, mostly involving arms and some mineral resources. The following year, when Vice-President Richard Nixon returned from an African tour he reported that French patronage and influence in north Africa are decreasing at an alarming rate. Rather than being seen as a form of communism, African socialism was viewed as a pragmatic ideology that blended some aspects of classical socialism, communism, Pan-Africanism, and African traditional values. Following a coup in 1965, he stayed in power until 1997 and amassed a personal fortune estimated at several billion US dollars by siphoning off the nations wealth. At times, however, realpolitik acted as a brake. On May 27, 1971, a friendship treaty was signed between the two countries, but relations were nevertheless declining. The Cuban missile crisis showed that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union were ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the others retaliation (and thus of mutual atomic annihilation). human resources had been so ruthlessly exploited for the sake of profit He emphasised that these links placed a burden of debt upon Cubans that they were duty-bound to repay.. Benin became a fully communist country and developed close ties to the Soviet Union Africa Press! Led the Soviet Union and the private ownership of property Ethiopia for its supposed similar cultural and parallels... 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Who would win the Cold War of settlers missiles in Cuba to launch attacks on U.S. cities a.
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